Urban spatial sequencing shapes dynamic thermal perception: Causal evidence for psychophysiological responses

Understanding how people perceive and adapt to heat stress in dynamic environments is essential for designing climate-responsive urban spaces. In this study, we investigated the causal mechanisms of dynamic thermal perception during heat waves in summer. By combining environmental sensing, physiological monitoring, questionnaire surveys, and causal inference models, we reveal how thermal sequences shape short-term thermal experiences. Specifically, placing cooling spaces earlier in the thermal sequence significantly attenuates the impact of skin-temperature change rate on thermal sensation. Furthermore, prolonged exposure to spaces underneath an elevated building (UEB) provides stronger mitigation against heat stress. Psychological expectation mediates thermal perception, providing emotional comfort and exerting a momentary negative psychological effect. Under heat stress, physiological response follows a coherent causal structure, triggering a primary cascade from skin temperature to core temperature and heart rate. These findings advance the understanding of dynamic thermal comfort by identifying its causal determinants and sequence-dependent mechanisms, offering new theoretical support for human-centered and climate-responsive urban design.