Recent advances in triboelectric nanogenerators: Mechanism, rational designing and applications

In the past decade, the exponential use of electronic devices has driven a substantial demand for sustainable, adaptable sensors and energy-harvesting systems. Projections indicate that the global sensor market will reach approximately 500 billion units by 2027, highlighting the urgent need for efficient power sources for these miniaturized devices. Triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs) have emerged as a promising solution for self-powered systems by converting ambient mechanical energy into electrical energy. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of TENGs, focusing on their operational modes, structural configurations, and the underlying mechanisms of triboelectrification, including electron transfer, ion transfer, and material transfer models. Furthermore, the review sheds light on advanced material designs and methodologies aimed at optimizing TENG performance. The manuscript also explores a broad spectrum of TENG applications, including energy harvesting from ambient mechanical sources, biomedical devices, the Internet of Things (IoT), robotics, and smart agriculture. This timely review is expected to contribute significantly to the rapid technological advancements in artificial intelligence (AI) and the development of next-generation self-powered sensors in the upcoming decade.