Nature-Inspired Living Materials for Health, Energy, and Sustainability

Nature serves as an inexhaustible source of inspiration for advanced material design. While nature-inspired nonliving materials exhibit exceptional properties, they typically lack the dynamic functionalities of living systems, such as self-healing and environmental responsiveness. To bridge this gap, living materials, which integrate living cells (e.g., bacteria, fungi, algae) within abiotic matrices, have emerged as transformative platforms. These materials harness cellular functions (e.g., biomineralization, programmable metabolism) to achieve unprecedented adaptability and sustainability. In this review, we categorized living materials into two distinct types based on the role of the cells: (1) cells acting as platforms for material synthesis and (2) cells integrated as components of materials for functionalization. We summarized the characteristics of living and nonliving materials inspired by nature, with applications of living materials in energy, medicine, catalysis, concrete, and soft robotics. We further discussed advanced manufacturing techniques for living materials. We envision that the design principles of living materials will advance health, energy, and sustainability.