Freeze–thaw cycles control successive glacier landslide hazards in Amney Machen Mountain

Climate change has markedly increased the susceptibility of glacier-related landslides to alpine environments, leading to cascading processes with catastrophic impacts. Nevertheless, their triggering processes remain inadequately understood, which hinder robust hazard assessments and effective risk mitigation. Glacier collapses and cascading processes have been frequently observed at Xiaoma Gully in Amney Machen Mountain. Based on remote sensing, meteorological data analyses, field surveys and numerical simulations, glacier landslide hazard chains in this gully are reconstructed and associated triggers are identified. Results indicate that extreme diurnal freeze–thaw cycles drove the Xiaoma glacier collapses, and extreme temperature and precipitation accelerated glacier instabilities. The 365-day cumulative number of diurnal freeze–thaw cycles is identified as a critical precursor for initiating glacier collapses, serving as a quantitative indicator to characterize the long-term impact of freeze–thaw cycles. The application of this indicator to the Kolka Glacier collapse at Genaldon Valley in Russian Caucasus further demonstrates its feasibility. Furthermore, the catastrophic glacier landslide cascades underwent hazard-type transformation and displayed high mobility, reaching peak flow velocities over 30 m/s. This study sheds light on early warning and emergency management of glacier collapses in alpine regions.