Electrocatalytic C–N coupling for sustainable urea synthesis: mechanisms, challenges, and future perspectives

The traditional urea production processes, such as Haber–Bosch and Bosch–Meiser, consume significant energy, highlighting the need for more sustainable alternatives. One promising method is electrocatalytic C–N coupling, which enables urea synthesis from carbon dioxide and nitrogen sources such as N₂, NO₃, and NO₂ under ambient conditions. This review focuses on the complex processes involved in C–N bond formation and examines recent advancements in the field. It critically analyzes key catalytic pathways, including CO + N₂, CO/CO₂ + NO₂, and CO + *NH₂ coupling, while highlighting how careful electrocatalyst design enhances these crucial interactions. Furthermore, this review explores various electrochemical cell configurations, such as membrane-based cells, flow cells, and H-type cells, for urea production. The aim of this study is to synthesize existing knowledge on reaction processes, catalyst development, and system design, offering valuable insights and guidance for the formation of efficient, scalable electrocatalytic systems for sustainable urea synthesis.