A critical review on antibiotics removal by persulfate-based oxidation: Activation methods, catalysts, oxidative species, and degradation routes

The widespread application of antibiotics has caused a large number of their residues in the water and posed a serious threat to the ecological environment and human health. Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) are a promising way to deeply remove such emerging organic pollutants in wastewater treatment. Recently, the AOPs based on sulfate radical (SO₄^–·) have become a global research hotspot owing to their characteristics of economic efficiency, wide application range, and high stability. In this review, traditional and emerging methods for persulfate activation (such as heating, ultraviolet (UV), carbon-based materials, metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), and transition metals) and their research progress in the degradation of antibiotics in water are summarized integrally. The main factors influencing the activation of persulfate by different methods, as well as the mechanism and pathway of antibiotic degradation, are discussed thoroughly, and the toxicity of antibiotic degradation intermediates is also evaluated. Finally, the developing trend prospects for advanced oxidation technology of active persulfate.